Module 21. Feline Actions

21.1 

Your cat has several actions it may show to you.

They are part of their typical behaviour but not all cats will display the same. It depends on their instincts as well as their relationship with you.

21.2. Catnip and Presents

Catnip is a plant that grows in the wild and discovered to be an intense herbal plant for cats. It can roll, twist, play and rub against the catnip object. It's a mint plant that has powerful effect on cats that are sensitive to it. Most will smell it and enjoy the resulting neurological condition - happiness due to the pheromones catnip is thought to mimic. There are receptors found in the brain of a cat that react to pheromones.

When eaten by cats it can have the opposite effect and make your cat mellow. It works differently for various cats. Some will meow or growl, be very hyperactive, run around, br aggressive and protective of their toys. This unusual behaviour only lasts for 10 minutes or less before your cat is ready for a long nap.

One study states that about 50% of cats are not sensitive to catnip and show no reactions. It also takes until a kitten reaches three to six months old before they will start to react to catnip.

Presents can be anything from an article of clothing to a dead animal. Your cat has instincts to hunt and if left outside they will catch mice, rabbits, birds and other small animals. When they present you with a gift they are looking for you to reward them. It's a sign of affection, trust and mutual respect. Cats who bring food are offering to share it with you (as with their pack) or showing what it is to hunt.

May domesticated cats will forget this behaviour if they are never allowed outside. Some will still keep it and show it in different ways - it may bring you a favourite toy. They may be asking to play with you but most often it is a way to ask for affection and to be rewarded.

When your cats begins to bring you presents that are left at the front door, or as far as they could bring them from a certain location, it means they missed you and want to get affection from you. It can be a reassuring behaviour, ie, "if I bring you a present you won't abandon me, right?" The behaviour can actually develop if their household situation changes.

21.3  Belly Up and Halloween Cat

Belly up behaviour is twofold. Your cat may be willing to go belly up as a way to get a tummy rub.

It feels good and they often show their appreciation by purring, kneading the air and remaining in this position. However, it can also be a false move. They are waiting for you to be lured in before the attack. The behaviour has become one of play, but it was also to give an opponent cat a false sense of submission. 

The halloween cat pose is all about a threat. The pose may appear when a loud noise occurs that your cat is unfamiliar with. Sometimes their tail just puffs up, but when something extremely threatening then the Halloween pose will occur. Although, sometimes it can happen when your cat is in play mode. He/she may not feel threatened at all but want to be threatening in play. Your cat will arch it's back, raise it's tail and get on it's tip toes, but the body will be in jack-knife position. The head is closer to the tail, in a half moon style pose. It might move sideways instead of going full front towards the object of play. The idea is to appear larger but to then pounce in play. You will know the difference between fear and play because the hair on your cat will remain lowered in play mode.

21.4  Grooming

Cats groom a lot. Studies reveal cats will groom about 50% of their waking time.

It's a learned behaviour from kitten-hood. Most start when they are about 2 weeks old and will be fully washing themselves by the time they are weaned. They do not groom to look good, they do it for skin health. It stimulates sebum, an oily secretion  from the base of their hair. They spread it over the rest of their body to make the fur waterproof as well as shiny. It also removes loose hair and can help prevent matted hair. Dirt, fleas, parasites are removed. Cat's tongues are covered in tiny bristle-like projections that help stimulate blood flow.

Grooming is an important gauge for your cat's health. An unsightly appearance can be a signal that your cat is feeling unwell. Changes in grooming can be in an aging cat that's less flexible, physical stress and illness, whether it's more frequent or less so. They can continue to lick a site until it is bald.

Cats typically use grooming techniques to cool off. Washing skin with saliva allows it to coll down when the saliva evaporates. The saliva contains several enzymes that promote infection treatment and healing. They are known to act as a natural antibiotic and creates a barrier that prevents predators from dectectiong their scent.

Your cat will use it's paws to groom areas like the face, head and ears. They will then use their mouths to clean their paws, along with their teeth to remove dirt. Their tongues will be used for all other parts, including tails, back sides, and their rear. Rear claws are used to scratch ears and dig out dirt inside, as well as scratch areas that may itch or need extra grooming. If excessively grooming a specific area or scratching one spot more often, or rubbing an area raw, you need to take them to a vet.

Cats can also mutually groom each other - about getting to areas they cannot reach plus comfort, love and companionship. 

Displacement grooming - cat will groom itself when feeling scared, tense or uncertain of how to react in a certain situation. This behaviour means they are grooming instead of dealing with the situation because grooming calms them down. You may see this when they are threatened by another animal - frantically start grooming instead of running away.

21.5  Catnaps

Short naps your cat will take throughout the day and night.

Your cat will be more active at night - a genetic throwback to living in the wild. They will hunt during the night in most cases. They often nap for up to an hour before they wake fully, start grooming and play. Sometimes they nap for 20 minutes, wake up, groom, play, eat and then nap for another 10 to 20 minutes. Catnaps will last as long as your cat is content to sleep, but they can also be shorter if a noise interrupts them or they feel a need to groom or eat.

21.6  Food Burying and Toy Dunking.

This is a common behaviour in certain cats.

It may be sending a message that they are tired of the food you're giving them or that there is a problem with it.

In most cases a cat is burying food from instinct.

They are trying to preserve their food in a safe place. They are not ready to eat out and want to prevent other predators from finding it. You may need to give your cat smaller portions, switch to fresh food or remove the food bowl. 

Toy dunking - in most cases a cat will just play with a toy, leave it around and go back and play later. It's rare for most cats to store their toys in a safe place to get them later. However, that is one theory behind toy dunking. Your cat may take it's favourite toy and dunk it in water. They may leave it there as a safe place to store it; after all, food and water is safe to them.

Another reason may be got clean a favourite toy that they feel is dirty. Some may dunk because they enjoy playing in the water - it's a game. They drop it in and fish it out. A final theory could be that cats know how much their own kind literally hate water so they will be less inclined to enter the water and retrieve a toy.

Module 4: Concept Formation

Concept formaion defines the process by which pets learn to form distinctions between things, people, events and other pets. 

What the module covers:

• The definition of concept formation
• Types of concept learning 
• What analogical reasoning means 
• How concept formation is important to pets and your interactions
• Studying your pets for better training 

4.1 Conceptual Behaviour in pets

Scientists and psychologists believe the ability to form distinctions or conceptual classes of things, events and people, is not uniquely human.

There are nonhuman animals such as cats, dogs, birds, and other pets that can distinguish between "relations". It is possible to examine stimuli your pet receives and see a behavioural reaction to it.

For example, you may live in a two-person household and walk your dog. Your dog may be walked by you or the other person. However, when both of you go out the door with your dog on the lead, it means the dog is going for a car ride. If the dog does not like car rides, it may try to run back into the house. The change in pattern and the knowledge that only one person walks him/her, unless it is a car ride, ensures the dog reacts.

What if after many walks with one person, you both decide you want to walk your dog? Your dog is not going to understand the change because their concept learning has indicated the only time both people go out the door is when a car ride is about to happen.

The way your pet learns through perceptual, associative and relational concept formation is a factor in their comfort level, recognition of objects, people and places.

4.2 Perception Concept Learning 

Perceptual concept learning is the ability to sort stimuli into classes, such as toys for play and toys for training.

For example, a dog can examine the physical characteristics of objects and categorise the stimuli they are being shown. The dog uses discrimination and generalisations to determine the differences. A dog can be trained to take a certain toy and put it in a certain location because of perceptual distinctions the dog can make between objects.

Studies by Smith and Medin, as well as Fetterman, have shown that an animal or pet's ability to discern items using vision is similar to humans to a degree. A human can look at an abstract picture of a cat and know it is a cat. An animal can see an outline, shadow, or other distinguishing characteristics and understand the same about certain stimuli in their life.

A good example of this perceptual class is an animal hunting at night. During the day we would find it easier to see defining characteristics; however, for animals like cats and owls, their vision is able to pick up enough characteristics of their prey and predators to understand which is which. To a degree, this makes perceptual concept learning about natural selection and the theory that the strongest survive versus the weakest.

4.3 Associative Concept Learning

Associative comcept learning is about arbitraty stimuli

The reaction you see in your pet is associated with a common situation or outcome. You may have made a certain noise to keep your cat off the furniture, away from plants, or off the table. This noise may occur at other times, but the cat will react when they hear it, and react as you have trained them to when they are someplace they should not be.

Another example is taking your pet on the same walk each day. You have requested that your pet goes in one direction versus another during their walk. After a couple of walks, they naturally go that way, instead of stopping and looking to you, to see which way to walk. Your cues are telling your pet how to react. If the walking route is circular, it may not matter if they start by going to the left or right; however, they have learned to associate the place and your request to go in one direction rather than the other.

4.4 Relationship Concept Learning 

Relationship concept learning takes perceptual concept learning a step further.

As with the example of a dog being able to distinguish between training and regular toys, there is an ability to examine the sameness or difference of an object, event, or person. If you have two toys that are exactly the same, you can see that your pet recognises this. You can also see that they can recognise if there is any difference to the toy.

Perhaps you bought a toy six months ago. It was your pet's favourite, but now it needs to be replaced. You buy the same exact toy, rub the old toy against it to get your pet's scent on it, put your scent on it, and then ask your pet to take the toy like it is their favourite. Yet, you notice they want the old toy. They recognise it is the same, but there is a relationship with the older toy, which the new toy cannot replace.

4.5 Analogical Reasoning

Analogical reasoning is considered a second order relational concept.

Pets are able to make analogies between objects whether it is the same, identical object or one that has differences. In this case, holding up three objects, where two are the same and one is not, will allow your pet to show that they can identify when objects are the same or different.

4.6 Concept Formation, Pets and Your Interaction

Starting to train and observe your pet early enough allows you to see the use of concept formation and implement it during their training.

Any pet has the intelligence to be trained, although some have more of an aptitude than others. By understanding how your pet learns, you can set a training regime that helps your pet learn. Trial and error is one way to start training a pet, but there is a better method through the idea of concept formation.

If you understand how your pet sees, feels, reacts to noises, tastes and smells, then you have the opportunity to train your pet on a higher level.

• If your have other pets, how is this new pet interacting?
• Are there behaviours you do not like?
• Do they show an aptitude for elements you are already trying to train them on?

Module 2: Why learn about Animal Behaviour?

All animals, evan humans have certain behaviours, mannerisms and emotions that create individual personalities and identities. learning about animals behaviours, mannerisms and emotions and traits you observe in your pet.

This module will cover the following 

• General and in-depth reasons for learning about animal behaviour
• The possible of re-domestication animals
• The appropriateness of pet fashion
• The selection of pets.

2.1 Generalised 

Understanding your pet or the pets you train is easier when you learn about animal behaviour.

Animals have certain instincts, ways of learning, and methods of teaching offspring that you can understand and adapt to have a better relationship with your pet. Like humans, all animals have individual personalities. No two cats, dogs, rabbits, snakes, birds or other pets are exactly alike. Consider twins for a moment. Even twins have different personalities, hights, appearances, likes and dislikes. To have a better relationship with any animal you work with or live with, you need to determaine the personality, mannerisms, emotions and behaviour of that animal, in order to train them and enjoy spending time with them.

There are various components to animal behaviour

Animal play- is a type of animal behaviour. Play mode is where you can see some entertaining aspects of you'r pet's life. There is also learning mode, where your pet is observing, imitating, imprinting and assessing their cultural group. Evolution states that there are certain innate behaviours an animal had adopted as they have evolved. These traits are often about the survival of the species, including hunting, hiding and procreating.

Training against the instincts of your pet will be difficult, however, if you observe and understand these traits, it will be easier to work towords the final goal. Learning modle (module1) - is about associative learning, imprinting, cultural learning, and teaching in a method your pet can understand. it all relates to animal behaviour.

Once you understnad the natural instincs and traits your pet has, you can focus on the elements you want to keep and help a young pet learn various skills. For example, you could have as issue with your cat getting on the kitchen worktops, or your dog eating shoes or digging in the rubbish to tear it apart. You do not want this behaviour to remain, but unless you observe, study prior animal adaptations and figure out how your pet will learn best, you will not be able to curb this natural behaviour.

A cat can be taught to wait by their food bowl, eat from a certain location and not steal from their fellow cats. A dog can be trained to be a companion or a service animal, but the first step is to learn about animal behaviour. Observational learning - is where the animal learns to observe and then imitate. Intelligent animal spacies observe and learn. Insight learning - encourages the animal to solve a problem. 

For example, you can place a piece of food inside a cadge and leave the door lightly unlocked. The dog or cat will try to open the door with their noses or paws and get at the food. Habituation and sensitisation are the simplest learned behaviours that involve changing a habit when it doesnt give any benifits. This is a highly adaptive behaviour as it changes with reward perception. Sensitistion learning makes the animal react more strongly to repeated stimuli.

2.2 Domestication

Approximately 12,000 years ago the world saw the first dog, a trained companion that was no longer exhibiting all the traits of wolves.

How did this domestication begin?

Why choose the wolf?

What about the domestication of various animals in more recent years?

Chimps monkeys parrots cockatiesls, panthers, tigers, elephant, and many other animals have been domesticated.

Some animals are easier to domesticate or adapt to the human way of life than others. Exotic pet owners who have raised panther cubs find that a mature panther is not as easy to take care of as a true house cat. It is because panthers are not as adaptable to the human world. There are many reserves and refuges for such unwanted pets that people tried to domesticate, yet many have tried to domesticate. But many have tried domestication because it has worked for several eras from the first dog to the cat 3,000 years ago.

Domestication is all about symbiosis. Will the animal recive somthing it needs from the himan, in order to make an alliance work?

If there is a possibility of a symbiotic relationship, what traits are necessart to make a good match?

Inarguably not all wolves could have been domesticated, wolves are still running in the wild and enjoying freedom, but there were a few that had traits desirable to humans that made it possible to eventually breed a new species. 

Although ethology and the early concept of animal psychology began with Aristotle, the premise came about over 12,000 years ago. During the Stone Age, it was recognised that animal behaviour could create a complementary relactionship between wolves and humans. For example a little child finding a toad, turtle or another animal in nature, and bringing it home, has the disire to keep that animal as a pet. The child will try to feed the animal, take care of it, and make it happy enough to live in a new, contained enviroment.

Due to the early studies of animal species, with books and online data, anyone can research how to take care of a certain type of animal. The data usually includes natural instincts, habitat, food needs, breeding and trainability. From these guides, a new pet owner can determine how easy it will be to help their new pet learn proper behaviour in their new domesticated environment.

Another example is an abused animal. Anyone who has knowledge of animal psychology and the heart and desire to take care of that anumal, can bring it home and help it to live a good life. A feral dog could be re-domesticated when it recives the love it needs from a human hand.

2.2 Breeding 

How are two animals compatible for breeding?

1. How do breeder know what animals to bring together in order to breed them?
2. How does natural cross-breeding of species in the wild occur?

There have been records of two dissimilar species breeding and producing a new species. Often, the species are linked closely enough genetically but still result in a different species. Outliers even occur in nature.

The main focus in animal behaviour is not to examine these outliers, but to understand how you can start a breeding programme or breed two animals to have offspring that you will keep,

COMPATIBILITY

You have certain traits you look for in a mate as a human being. Your pets will do the same. It is in the pet's natural instincts to breed, but that does not mean there is not a set of desireed traits. Lions form a pride with one male lion. This male is the strongest, capable of fighting off other male lions and protecting their pride. All females in that pride mate with him and not others. It is the instinct of the fittest mate.

CHOOSING TRAITS

For breeding to occur you will need two pets that are compatible. You also want to make certain they have the desired traits. Like earlier humans who bred wolves, you are going to breed certain traits based on why you want the pet. A show dog or cat is bred to be pure of any impurities, possess the correct temperament and have a perfect appearance.

Breeding is partly about the appearance of your pet, but emotions and personality have more to do with animal psychology. By observing the two animals you intend to make, you can determine if the appropriate traits are present. Once mating occurs, it is up to genetics to create the results you see in a litter of puppies, kittens, or other animals. Unless you have the resources for genetic mapping for breeding, you will have to use animal psychology together with the appearance of the animals.

2.4 THERAPEUTIC VALUE

The therapeutic benifit of having a pet can never be overstated.

Interating with pets is known to be theraputic in several ways:

• It reinforces empathy and provides motivation
• Pet interations reduce aniety by having a calming effect
• Animals make us happier, less bored and less prone to loneliness
• Pets are known to decrease depression

CHOOSING THERAPEUTIC BENEFITS

Here are a few of the most common theraputic benifits we have animals for:

• Companionship
• Assisting with a disability
• Assisting with PTSD
• Assisting with ADHD
• Epilepsy

Animals can assist with a wide array of disabilities. Individuals who are blind or deaf have found many advantages to having a pet. Hhowever, in the last decade, there has been a substantial rise in the use of animals as a form of theorpy. Now there are dogs and cats trained to live in assisted living facilities with long-term care patients with dementia, cancer Alzheimer's and other very deblitating diseases.

Individuals with epilepsy who have enlisted the help of theropy dogs are able to live fuller lives. Furthermore, certain breeds of dogs have been trained to detect chemical changes in their owners and are able to warn of an oncoming attack, such as an epileptic seizure.

Some studies have found that animals can also detect when their human companion is ill. To benefit from this type of therapeutic value, the owner has to be able to read the change in their animals behaviour.

ASSESSING AN ANIMAL FOR THERAPUTIC TRAITS

Not all animals are able to function as a therapy animals. Therefore, it is unrealistic to exept all animals to be able to learn this type of behaviour. This means that through animals behaviour studies you can learn to distinguish which pets are going to be able to provide a therapeutic benifit 

Instincts are the first area to examine.

Questions to consider

1. What is the animals natural instinct?
2. Is your pet more apt to sit with you?
3. If you are upset or worried, does your pet notice and stay close trying to help you feel better?
4. Is your pets instinct to continue playing or is their behaviour consistent no matter what your mood?

A pet that makes a good theropy pet is one that sees the nuances of change within you and reacts in a therapeutic manner.

Training and learning capabilities are two other areas to observe and assess.

1. Is your pet capable of learning new things with ease?
2. Do they show an aptitude for certain theraputic needs?
3. Has training of new concepts gone well.

Therapy pets undergo inital pet training, such as sit commands, and then obtain further training to become theropy pets. Assessing their ability during early training and the skills they display as young animals, assures you of their skills and abilities to train for therapeutic purposes. A cat that enjoys a walk does not necessarly like car rides, therfore it is about choosing a pet based on more than one persinality chatacteristic.

A highly strung cat that is in constant play mode may enjoy the exercise of a walk, but going on a car ride and sitting as a companion to anyone, whether it is their owner or another human, may not be possible. it is important to assess certain personality traits of a pet. A pet that is not easily panicked, often remains calm no matter what is happerning, and approaching all humans with love is a good example of desired therapy traits. A pet that is very anxious is easily scared or is unlikely to cuddle, when the owner is worried, will most likely not make a good therapy pet, as it will not adapt to the training required.

FACT

Dogs can be beneficial additions to the lives of autistic children. Trained dogs can lessen the childs tendency to aggressiveness and give them a sense of independence.

2.5 ANTHROPOMORPHISM

Anthropomorphism is the assignment of human characteristics to animals.

This is extremely common in pet owners, who often try to ascribe human motivations to their pets behaviour. For example, they may claim their dog feels guilty after doing somthing wrong, like knocking a bin over to eat its contents. This is simply not the case, the dog just associates the knocked-over bin with the owner's anger, and this is not the same as guilt as a human would experience it.

To understand animal behaviour, it is essential to put aside any notion that they are like humans or have the same throughts or needs. Anthropomorphism can be harmful, as it stops you from truly understanding animals and treating them in the way that they deserve. That is not to say that you shouldnt try to empathise with animals- simply be mindful that they are different species.

Animals are animals, and to anthropomorphise them is to do them a disservice. It is far better to learn about the characterstic traits of a species than to try to humanise them. For example, learning how to read a particular animals body language is crucial to understanding how it is feeling.

2.6 PET FASHIONS

Is pet attire really comfortable for animals?

In the last couple of decades, it has become a trend to dress up animals in specially made pet attire, however do our pets really like it or is it somthing they have been trained to accept? Lets consider horses for a moment.

The concept of breaking a horse is to show the horse who is the leader, in order to put a bit in there mouth, a harness around their face and ears, and a saddle on their back. A more acceptable method is showing the horse that there is a symbiotic relationship to accepting the harness and saddle, where there are love and respect between human and horse.

Some horses are keener than others to be saddled and trained. Lead training with a dog and cat begins early to ensure the pet understands the weight, feel and control of the lead. If you start too late, the pet may resist moving once the harness or collar is on. By utilising early training, when the pet has yet to learn too much or understand its natural instincts, it is possible to train the acceptance of a harness and pet fashions.

Animal behaviour studies conducted by you will help you determine if your pet will accept pet fashions as something more than training. You will learn to assess their personality, instincts, and likes and dislikes. However, dressing up a pet can sometimes be uncomfortable. It is important to assess the benefit of the item of clothing for the animal, rather than just dressing up as a fashion statement,

2.7 CHOOSING A PET

How are going to choose a pet?

Have you ever brought home a pet from a shelter or pet shop, only to find it is hard to train?

Learning about animal psychology and behaviour specific to breed will help when choosing a pet. Not only will this prove to be beneficial for the pet owner, but for the animal itself.

For example, if you already have a 10 year old dog or cat, the shelter might suggest adopting an older dog or cat rather than a puppy or a kitten. This can help with acceptance by your current pet. It is vary important to take into consideration the current domestic situation as well as the behaviour of specific breeds.

Here are some questions current pet owners can ask.

• Has this pet ever been exposed to another species other than humans?
• How has this pet interacted with others in its species or a differnt species?
• Is this pet sedate or active?
• How easy was it to train this pet you own?
• Is your pet lonely?

Studying their behaviour will help you determine the answers. For example, a pet whines, much like a child whines for attention. You might have tried everything from setting up a place they can sleep near you, to playing with them and attending to their needs. If nothing stops this behaviour and they are a single pet, they may be lonely. Yo cannot be around constantly and you may find your pet shows they miss your absences and any inattention. It may indiicate loneliness that could be helped with a comanion pet. 

ASSESSING A POTENTIAL NEW PET

Most shelters and pet stores allow you to spend time with an animal before taking it home. This is to help determine the relationship between the animal and the potential owner. sometimes, this brief interaction may not be enough to decipher the compatibility of the pet and the potential owner.

Many shelters will do background checks and various other assessments to determine compatability before allowing for the adoption of their animals. This not only ensures that the new home is approrpriate for the pet but also makes curtain that is compatibility.

SUMMARY

Animal behaviour is about studying the instincts of animals in order to decipher how they learn, play, and teach their offspring or group members. Serveral reasons exist for learning animal behaviour, including understanding domestication, breeding, therapeutic value, and choosing the best pet for your household.

All of these topics where discussed in detain, as well as having a look at anthropomorphsm, pet fashions, and whether animals truly enjoy wearing clothing or if it is something they accept based on training, for pet owners, becoming familiar with animal psychology is crucial in ensuring a happy pet.

They trained a chicken

they trained 140 species of animals

They also trained about 15000 to 16000 animals throughout their caree

 moodule 5:Abount animals brain

in module 5 you will learn about aniamls brains, particulary about the two most common pets,  here are a few study points.

• New research showing science has just begun to understand the animal brain
• New tests designed for the animal can help revealt their intelligence.
• Comparing the human brain to other animals
• The dog and cat brain
• Rats, empathy and continues studies

5.1 DOES THE SCIENCE OF ANIMALS BRAINS KNOW IT ALL?

Science continually come back to one thing when discussing animal brains, and that is size.

Brain size is still considered the ultimate determiner for how animals differ, particullarly when camparing the human brain to other animals. Howerever, psychology shows us that brain size may not exclude certain behaviour and emotion.

brains of various species are different with regards to lobes.

The human brain has for lobes, which differ from most animals. The lobes are frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital. These lobs give humans the ability to see, controle movement and speak. Humans, at least according to our research, are the only animals capable of a complex language. The languages and abilities of humans when compared to aniamls is a debate for another day, however, it should be noted that animals have their own languages and abilities.  Their capabilities differ from ours and are not fully understood. Reasearchers are discovering more than the conditioning responce that pets have shown us since pavlov started working with dogs. We already understood the navigation elements pets have to a degree, many animals have a home beacon that tells them how to return to their den, pack, flock or breeding grounds.

Now researchers are finally testing theories on more than basic emotion, motivational processes and social emotions. It is through various tests of animals that biologists and primatologists are starting to recognise the intelligence animals have. 

New research shows humans have underestimated the scale and scope of aniaml intelligence.

Primatologists frans de waal spoke with the wall street journal about chimps, elephants and rats having studied these animals all of which are capable of showing empathy. This is just one example of how new research is taking a different look at how animals think and behave. Evidence has suggested certain emotional processes with dogs depression after there owner dies. Even hourses have displayed emotions associated with loss when an owner has died.

According to the study of wheather an ape or person is smarter, one has to realise it depends in the task.

A 2007 study at kyoto university compared a chimp called ayumu to several humans. Ayumu was able to recall nine random numbers, whereas the scientist, fran de waal could only remeber 5. Ayumu also outperformed university students and ecen a british memory champion.

It suggests that in certain circumstances animals like the chimp may have the smarter brain. When it comes to seeing patterns for a few seconds, versus a human that sees it longer, a chimp has better recall.

animal psychology and other areas of study have begun to realise that congition in animals can be studies using some inventive tests. these tests indicate  that the concept of scala naturae which has been out ladder of the animal kingdoms order may be inaccurate. Even rene descartes was incorrect in calling animals soulless automation. B.F skinner staed thar animal cognition is nothing but an oxymoron, for while animals are capable of learning they cannot think or feel. Scientest today are starting to think differently, in order to figure out an animals level of intelligence.

For example a chimp is able to pick up a stick and use it as a tool, but an elephant would not react the same way.

For an elephant their olfactory senses are more heightened: as the tool is their trunk, which is also their nose. rather than using sight as the main sence they use their trunk to detect different smells, if an elephant picked up a stick to use it as a tool it would block its nose: essentially cutting off its oxygen, however, given an elephant a box to reach food hanging high on a tree and the elephant can use the box as a tool to stand on and reach the food.

When discussing animal brains, one must realise brains may form differently, have fewer lobes, be smaller or larger in size, but overall there is more than instinct.

5.2 DOGS AND CATS

Nicholas dodman, a scientist at tufts university school of veterinary medicine in boston, examines cats and other animals in tearms of brain functionality, size and structure.

According to dodman, cats and dogs have temporal, frontal, parietal and occipital lobes their cerebral cortex just as humans do. Studies also show the regions of the brain are connected in the same way as a human brain. Cats and dogs also have five basic senses, there is a short and long term memory function in both dogs and cats.

In order to understand your pet it is important to realise that the brain of a cat and dog functions in a similar manner to humans, with all the emotions humans can feel,

The myth that a cat has a small brain and poor memory is widespread, but still incorrect. A cat has been tested for memory and shows a capacity to remember events up yo 16 hours after they have happened.

The example of the cat who likes to walk, but will not walk if the two people in its household leave at the same time. If a cat has only a short memory, where it cannot remeber getting in trouble for the same thing 30 seconds ago, how can this same cat be fearful of a possible car ride?  remeber, this cat walks only with one human and if two go with it then a car ride is about to happen. The cat through learning and instincts, is capable of remebering things it does not like.

Whilst the car is parked and trurned off this same cat has the compacity to walk past and even sniff the car it has ridden in, but will not go near it if both members of the household step out the front door to go on a walk. This same cat has only been in the car four times, yet the dislike and fear is readily remebered.

This behaviour suggests the cat has a better memory than humans initially beleaved.

SCANS OF DOG BRAINS

As science and technology improves, our abilities to see and learn more also improve.

Brain scans are one way that technology has allowed humans to study animals with better results. It has helped scientists and doctors learn more about the human brain, but also allowed researchers to truly see brain function in animals.

Emory university wanted to study a dogs brain while the dog was awake and without restraints. this was not a study done before as most studies involved putting the animal to sleep.

The researchers at emory university trained the dog to walk and sit in an MRI machine. Using hand signals the researchers trained the dogs that they would receive a treat, while another signal indicated they would not get a treat. Images were taken of these interactions in order to see the brains' reaction to these hand signals.

the study showed that the region associated with the reciving a human reward became active. the test proves information already understood by most dog trainers, for the dog to recogniese hand signals and action them as the human trainer wants. the brian needs to react, which part of the brain reacts, how it reacts and weather it is simiar to a human's brain reacting to a treat or hand signal, is also an important part of the study, it helps show that in some ways the dog's brain is similar to a human's.

DOG TRIVIA

Goldsmiths college in london has conducted research on dog's brains: showing the dog feel empathy for ther human companions and even strangers. The study concludes that a dogs emotions receptors resemble that of a human's. The university of vienna in austria has also concluded that dogs know when they are not being treated correctly.

A dog has an increased sence of smell due to olfactory receptors, but the interpretation of those signals is the function of the brain, the combination of the sence of smell and how the brain works give dogs the abilty to detect drugs, cancer, bombs and locate missing people.

Studies in leipzig, germany, through the max plunck institute for evolutionary authropology, show that dogs can learn human language and from conclusions about what new words means. A border collie named rico learned 200 words of the human vocabulary. Further testing revealed the ability of rico to learn new words.

Consider for a moment the pets you may have had or do have. does your pet react to their name in a different manner than other words spoken? An easy way to assess this is to have more than one pet and conduct an experiment. When  you call one pet's name does the other pet react? do you suddenly have two pets approaching or looking at you? most likely only one pet will react to the name. there is several variables such as where you call the name from. For example, if you are in the place you feed your two pets you will probably get both pet's attention however if you are on the couch then the one you call will react.

FACT

The brain of the domesticated cat is about 5 centimeters long and weighs 25-30g 

5.3 RAT STUDIES

rats make some of the best study subjects in a laboratory for several reasons.

They are a small species that can be housed with little funding. humane tests have been happening recently, where the results suggest the rat brain and other similar brains can be used in a better way.

Live science recently discussed a study where researchers placed microscopic wires in the brains of rats. The wires were used to establish a connection between two rat brains. Rats with the connection were able to solve problems quicker than a rat without these wires and connection. Miguel nicokekis, a duke university medical centre researcher, said this is a brain network created with a brain to brain interface. Research took this study a step further by using macaque monkeys.

The result was a hightened capability of the monkeys, scans of the brains showed synchronicity and therefore an improved performance. The idea is that with tecnology. Better computers can be built based networks or organically powered computers.

It might sound far-fetched and there is certainly plenty to be debated, however, there is one inescapable fact; the brain in any animal has untapped potential. According to most medical research humans only use a small portion of their brain. there is research to suggest that most animals too use only a fraction of their brain power. Research also suggests we misunderstand how much brain power an animal really has.

5.4 RESEARCH WILL CONTINUE

Research into the animal brain, from a human level all the way down to the smallest organism with a brain, will continue.

researchers are constantly looking for ways to improve how we use our brains and the intelligence we display. there is also research assessing brains of certain favourt pets, such as dogs, cats, birds and reptiles, in an effort to reduce the myths and misunderstandings the human race has about other living organisms.

Research asks for the acceptance that old theories about intelligence are only partially correct; after all who has it better?  The domesticated dog and cat get to live in a comfortable home. Dogs and cats sleep, eat, play and occasionally have jobs like rescuing humans but all humans must work to live, to be able to eat and drink, and enjoy life.

MODULE 1: Introduction to pet Psychology

1:1 what is animal psychology?

Also known as Ethology, which is the scientific name given to the objective study of animal behaviour in various settings. The main goal of animal psychology or ethology is to view the animal in its natural habitat in order to observe its behaviour on an evolutionary scale. It can also include the study of animal behaviour in an un-naturtal or lab context in order to assess instricts, learning and training abilties. 

Naturalsists such as Steve Irwin, Jane Goodall, John Muir, John Audubon and Rachael Carson have all studied adnimals in their natral habitat, as a way to observe and learn about their environmental and evolutionary adaptations, and behaviours. 

Jane Goodall and Dian Fossey have both worked with primates in their natural habitat, studying the animals to help the world understand  their unique attributes, behaviours and plight. Other scientists have spent time in laboritories determining levels of adaptations, mutations, evolutionary changes, insticts and ability to learn through conecpt formation. 

Ethology includes disciplines such as neuroanatomy, evolution and ecology. 

Ethologists have studied specific behaviours, group behaviours, communication, emotions, sexulity and cultural elements. The goal of animal psychology is to understand animal behaviour that can lead to training animals or saving their species. Animal psychology is important in training your pets, in terms of undersranding their natural behaviour, instincts and reflexes. 

Why does your cat or dog continue to follow the same behaviour patterns over and over again? 

Is there a way to stop behaviour you do not like when they come from natral instict? 

1:2 Theory of Evolution

Charles Darwin, was an English naturalist and consistered the farther of evolution and natural selection. His trips and a naturalist allowed him to notice and record very suttle differences between species and finches. The definition of evolution states that there is a changes in heritable traits within biological population that occurs over several generations. Through evolution, species, oganisms and molecules have either adapteted or become extinct. As as result of this, new species have also irisen from evolutionary changes.

Evolution is the word we asign to the changing of any species human or otherwise overtime. The exolution of a species is how we have domesticated animals and turned them into pets. Certain animals have been revierd throughout the world but early humans where more concerned with hunting animals than domenticating them as animals where a primary source of food. 

Evidence suggest that from 10,000 up to 20,000 years ago - during the most recent ice age - humans mainly focused on hunting animals. Antrapathologcally speaking, it is farly clear to see that the first animals to be domesticated where wolves. 

Stoneage drawing indicate that wolves and humans co-existed, even living together at times. In tern approximately 12,000 years ago, the first species of dogs excisted. An animal jaw bone in a cave was found to be smaller with smaller teeth indicating that selective breeding of certain trates accured of wolves to form a new breed of animal and one that would be more of a companion and less of a preditor to humans.

According to reports in the national geagraphic and the encyclopedia britannica, goats and sheep may have been one of the first animals to be domesticated followed by chickens i south east asia. 

Dogs were domesticated about 15,000 years ago in centeral asia. The first species of dogs for example, existed about 12,000 years ago. Eventually draffed animals or animals capable of helping on farms and living with less water were domesticated. For example, the ox was used to pull karts in India and south east acia. The water buffalo began to be deomesticated in 4,000bc. 

Cats where actually a much later species to be domesticated than other animals. Evidence would suggest that cats started to be domesticated around 3,000 b.c, but it could have been much earlier than this time. 

Cats tenderd to live alone and in the wild, but had no trouble taking what they wanted from humans such as shelter, food and entertainment. The conept of simbiotic relathionships meant that cats wuld give back by hunting pests such as field mice and other criters. 

The important point is that all animals that are domesticated today had in someway a benefial relathionship in humans brought about by a slow evolution of traits humans wanted to see in these animals. 

1:3 History of animal psychology - Instict, Leanring and Teaching. 

Scala naturae was first proposed by Aristotle and it was the most accepted concept of animal behaviour in the world until the 19th century. Aristotle classified living beings on a pyramid which represented anmals at different levels. 

The lower level of the pyramid were filled with the simplest animals, increasing in ability, intelect and behaviout towards to top of the pyramid. The belief was that animals were to fulfil a certain purpose. Even in the ancient times, it was evident that animals could adapt and that there were many different behaviours.

Despite these early observations on animal behaviour, it would take many years before the concept of animal psychology or ethology would be put forward. 

Initially, the world firts had to learn about evolution from French naturalist (Jean Baptiste Lamarck), his theory stated that animal physiology and behaviour would change and those changes would be reflected in the next generation. Lamarck has some trouble getting his theory knewn to the world. 

It was not until Charles Darwin took Lamarcks theories forward and injected more life into them that others started to make headway in understanding the beaviours of animals. George Romanes, Darwins protege, started researching animal intelligence and assessing anthropomorphic traits and cognitive functionality in animals. Romans did not gain much support, even in the scientific community. However, other ethologists were looking at behaviour as natural or instinctive. Scientists began recording primary behaviours and the frequencies with which these behaviours occurred in an ethogram. It was an objective way to accumulate data. The 1970s marked another change for ethology. John H. Crook, an English ethologist published a paper stating that therw ere two types of ethology comparative and social. 

He further stated that most of ethology had been comparative, with animals being exammined against humans. He wanted ethologists to examine groups of animals based on social interactions and structure. The social aspects of ethology led to new appraoches such as animal congnition, comparative psychology, behaviour ecology, and sociobiology. 

most biologists, vets, primatologists, anthropologists and physicians now study animal psychology in order to study animal social groups, animal welfare and animal cognition, to apply it to their various fields of study, whether it is specifically a study of human or nonhuman animals.  

FACT

The oldest intact fossilized remains of a pet canine date back 33,000 years. It was doscovered in Siberia in the 1970s. 

1.4 Components of Ethology

Niko Tinbergen stated that there are four categories that ethologists must look at when studying a group of animals and learning about their behaviours, function, causation, development and evolutionary history. 

Function

Why does an animal respond in a certain way and not in any other way?

Causation

This is the stimulie that has caused or triggerd the response. 

Evolitionary history

This is the way the behaviour compares with simular behaviours in other species. 

Development

Examining how the behaviour of the species chances with age and surcomstances and the experiences that were necessary to trigger the behaviour. 

Ethologists need to ask how the behaviour effects the animals reproduction and chance of survival.

Questions

• Why does the aniaml respond with certain behaviours rather than in a different way? 
• What stimuli create the reponse seen and how has this response changed due to recent learning?
• How will the behaviour of an animals change as it gets older and what experiences in early life were necessary for the animal to show such behaviours? 
• Does evolutionary history explain how the behaviour compares with simular behaviours in closely related species, and how might the behaviour have appeared in new generations?

Tinbergen believed the answers to these questions to be complementary instead of being mutually exclusive. In other words, the answers to the behaviours shown must be found by looking at the four levels: function, causation, development and evolutionary history. As a trainer, animal caretaker or pet owner, you can examine these same four areas about the animal's behaviour. You will have responsibilities in assessing behaviour, helping the animal learn and teaching them with appropiate positive reinforcement. 

The following are three areas that are important to animal psychology. 

Instinct

Instinct is defined as "a largely inheritable and unalterable tendency of an organism to make a complex and specific response to environmental stimuli without incvolving reason", according to the Merriam Webster doctionary. 

Instinct is a behaviour you observe in any animal that is not learned or taught. It is a reaction to the environement, stimuli or situations that the animal cannot control. An example of instinct would be an animal defending itself from a perceive attack, because it feels threatened. You could also call cats scratching an instinct. Even cats that have had there clawed removed still scratch because they are programed to do so. 

Osker Heinroth calls insticts a fixed action patten. Konrad Lorenz took this concept further and stated that "sign stimuli" create an instinctive response, which is a reliable response based on that specific stimuli. 

Learning

Learning processes include habituation, associative learning, imprinting, cultaral, observation and imitation. Habituation os one of the simplest forms of learning any pet or animal can undergo. Rather than responding to stimuli, the behaviour becomes innate. You can think of this as a routine the anmal undertakes. 

One of the best examples is an animal in a zoo: the animal becomes accustome to a routine such as when it is time to get fed or go inside for the night. Sounds may happen that indicate food is forthcoming, but the animal is already antucipating it, or the door to go inside will open but the animal is already waiting. 

Associative learning will be discussed in further detail in conecept learning, however it is a learning process when new responses are associated with certain stimuli. Ivan Pavlov is the discoverer of this concept {classical conditoning}. An example would be a dog showing excitement when is seesn a lead, because is has come to associate the lead means a walk. 

Imprinting is about discerning members of one species versus other species. It is the way baby penguin knows its mother after it hatches. it is also the reason that unless an animal is going to be domesticated from the wild, a human should not interfere in its early days. By feeding a new baby, the animal could assume the human is its mother or relative instead of the actual mother. Cultural learning is seen in pack behaviour. Young animals will learn about their culture and way of life through the community around them. It is difficult for various types of animals, but the environment plays a key role in the cutural learning an animal or pet receives. Obsercational learning is best seen by pet owners when there are multiple pets in the home. 

Perhaps you have trained your pers well with regards to certain behaviours. Later a new pets is added to the household, perhaps this new pet "a cat" likes to purr and meow when its about to be fed. The older cat, that has learned to quietly and patiently, sees the new cat getting fed with the purr and meow and starts to follow suit. Rather than sitting in the spot and remaining patient, the older cat starts to beg for its food. Through observation, the older cat decides that it might get food faster or recieve more attention by immatating the younger cat. 

Immatation is consided an advanced behaviour because it reqiures observation and then a replication of behaviour seen in another. Primates such as chimps learning to paint can be considered another example of immitation. 

Teaching

Teaching occures through other animals or humans, when training their pets. Withbteaching there is a need to adjust bheaviour so the pupil or observer can learn the behaviour required. 

Orca's are as good example of teaching, were the teacher adjusts their training to see success in their offspring. An Orca will ride waves all the way onto the beach to catch a seal and the mother will help her offspring learn this by altering the behaviour for the lesson. 

As a pet trainer and one who studies animal psuchology, it will be important that your teaching methods are adjusted to the animal. Some animals will take longer to learn a skill or behaviour you want to see. 

Module explores the animals vision, by learning about the following points:

• Is all animal vision the same?
• Seeing colours?
• Seeing by feeling
• Night vision
• Researching animal vision

3.1 Is all animal vision the same?

Many animals use their eyes in the same way as us humans, but there are some differences.

Colour 
You may have heard that many animals cannot see in colours, but this is not entirely accurate. Although some animals are able to see in colour, there is a limitation as to how much colour they can see. These animals just have poor colour vision and every species sees differently. The human eye is one of the most advanced for daylight, with the ability to see a full spectrum of colour.

Field of vision (Binocular)

Where the eyes are positioned also makes a difference to the field of vision. For instance, dogs and cats have eyes that are positioned wide apart on the head and therefore have better peripheral vision than humans. However, this decreases their depth perception.

Clarity of vision (Aculity)

While humans depend heavily on their normal 20/20 vision, other animals may not, relying on their other senses. For example, dogs will see clearly to 20 feet, as human do at 75 feet. Cats, however, have a more similar acuity vision to humans but also see better at close range.

Night vision

Compared to other animals, humans have limited night vision. While able to see in the dark, humans lack the sharpness that many other animals require in order to see effectively in the dark.

Humans also have farsightedness, near-sightedness and colour-blindness issues that can limit what is seen.

3.2 Seeing Colours

Certain animals can see in colour, however, their ability is limited to blue-violet and yellows.

Animals that fit into this catergory are:

• dogs
• cats
• mice
• rabbits
• rats

There are many myths associated with animals and sight. For example, in bullfighting, it is often thought that the bull is enraged by the colour red. However, it is usually a result of the movement of the cape that causes the animal to charge.

There are other animals that have better vision than dogs, mice, cats, rabbits and rats.

Animals with good colour vision are able to see a range of colours. They must not see as many colours as humans do, but still tends to be better than the typical house pet. 

The list includes:

• Monkeys
• Birds
• Ground squirrels
• Insects
• Fish

There are organisms with superior colour vision compared to that of others. This category includes bees and butterflies. These two insects have the ability to see a more elaborate spectrum of colours than humans; unseen to the human eye, the colour spectrum includes ultraviolet rays.

It is a pollination adaptation. A special ultraviolet pattern of pollination attracts these insects to the correct part of the flower. Without their superior vision, it would be difficult to get to the relevant part of the flower the insects feed off.

3.3 Seeing by feeling

Why do some animals see such vibrant colours, while others none? Is there a species or breed of animal that cannot see at all? 

Some animals do not need to see. Certain evolutionary adaptations have taken away the eyes of some organisms or have given an animal a special survival trait in lieu of colour vision.

Animals, such as the Mexican Cavefish, have evolved without having any eyes. This is due to a lack of food and oxygen in the dark water caves. When compared to their surface-dwelling cousins, it would seem that the Cavefish underwent a process of natural selection, where only those capable of surviving in the deep, dark waters would survive.

The pit viper is another animal that has an adaptation that makes eyes a secondary requirement for living and seeing. A pit viper sees by feeling. It is not the same type of feeling a fish does though. A fish has sensory organs along their mouth, to feel through the water and along the ground for prey. The pit viper takes this to a whole new level by feeling the heat of an object. Scientists call this thermal vision. The viper sees heat signatures in order to identify prey instead of colours.

3.4 Night vision

Humans require night vision goggles to see fully in the dark, but many other animals have a superb natural ability to see and manoeuver in the dark.

The human eye can see in dim light, but its cone receptors are unable to function in the dark. Therefore, humans cannot see colour in the dark, but rather shades of grey.

While a human may walk into a wall in the dark, a cat or dog can easily find its way without the need for light. It is argued that certain pets may find the challenge for their owners to walk in the dark, comical. This poses the question, are our pets playing in the dark or simply hoping to not be found?

Another question would be, why do cats prefer to be outside at night, rather than during the day? Like many nocturnal animals, daytime sounds can often be too loud for felines. Furthermore, many animals - cats included - often feel exposed to predators during the day and tend to prefer the shadows and calmness of the night.

Animals, like cats, including big cats such as lions and owls, like to hunt at night. Animal behaviour studies have shown that the vision and biology of these organisms tend to be very sharp vision in the dark.

Scientists only recently discovered that while certain animals can see colours in very poor lighting. Certain animals, like the gecko, are able to tell the colour blue from the colour grey, even in extremely dim light.

FACT

Cats have superb night vision - their oval-shaoed pupils can widen and narrow very quickly to control how much light comes into their eyes.  

3.5 Researching animal vision

Much of what we know about animal vision has been studied in a lab under controlled conditions.

The study of animal behaviour allows researchers to determine what an animal sees and how it views the world. It is not possible for us to see through the animal's eye, yet. But it is possible to test what the animal likes under controlled conditions.

This process was used on fish to determine the visual pigments and photosensitivity of cells, which determined what colours and how well the organism could see.

Other tests and research conducted have inc;uded a vision colour test based on behavioural reaction, where an animal such as a mouse, was shown colours. The mouse was then given a chose of three colours and received a reward at the end of the choice. The mouse had to decide which panel looked different in order to receive a reward. The theory was, if the mouse could see yellow, blue or red, then a reward of soy milk would be given. The rodent would have to be able to see the light in order to see how to get the reward. Ultimately, the mouse could not see a difference between yellow and blue, so it chose red. 

The interesting thing about this study is that scientists at John Hopkins and the University of California decided to genetically modify the colour vision of mice. A normal mouse cannot tell yellow from red, but their genetically altered mouse was able to find the red light with the reward.

The alteration to the mouse's vision was possible through the understanding of human vision.

Humans see in trichromatic colour meaning there are three cone cells in the human eyes. This allows for the ability to absorb green, blue and red light. Most other mammals have only two cone cells, thus the reduced vision. The study was not wholly about animal behaviour, but to determine the evolution of colour vision. It also focused on whether expanding the sensory input range of an animal would alter the animal's behaviour. This vision study has revealed certain humans have the ability to see more colours because they have four colour receptors. There are also colour blind humans who have a missing or improper third colour cell.

Dogs and cat eye problems

• Damaged cornea: dogs often suffer from punctured, injured or ulcerated cornea. For example, they often get injured when they run throught tall grass
• Dry eye: dogs eyes produce fewer tears and this leads to dry eye syndrome
• Conjuctivities: this is an infection of the conjunctiva or the mucous membranes in the eye
• Glaucoma: this is an increase in eye pressure. This may manifest as increased tear production or cloudness in the eye
• Entropion: this is when hair rubs on the cornea and causes damage. Some dogs are born with eyelids that turn inwards and its a congental problem. 

3.6 Vision, stress and injury

All animals have stressors that can change their behaviour.

For example, an animal that has suffered physical and verbal abuse can begin to change its behaviour.

The dog becomes extremely submissive, nervous, confused and fearful. If the same dog was given a good home it would display happy emotions and typical dog traits. This correlation can be applied to animal behaviour based on vision concepts with the introduction of stress and injury.

An injury acquired in an accident a pet is involved in that compromises the animals vision would also affect their behaviour. 

The stress level of the injured pet would increase. The pet may be less likely to want to leave the safety of home at all, or when it feels most vulnerable. The animal may also become lethargic because it is too stressed to move due to a decline in vision.

Animals can develop vision problems when they become older. They may not be able to see as well in certain lighting conditions or have trouble finding their food and water. By understanding how animals see the world, you can assess their behaviour as they age. If a pet is able to heal from an injury affecting their vision, their behaviour may return to what it once was, but with more caution. On the other hand, this same pet may have adapted to their injury and developed new behaviour that aided them in seeing, and this behaviour may still be used.

Humans rely heavily on their ability to see. Someone who loses their sight feels hugely disadvantaged, and touch then becomes an important sense when trying to manoeuver.

For most animals, their sense of smell, touch, hearing and taste is often more acute than their sense of sight.

It suggests that poor colour vision exists amongst animals because they do not need the added benefit of a full-colour range. Certainly some animals that eat during the day and eat varied coloured food need to see a better colour range; however, those that do not rely on other senses and have behaviour adapted to those needs of survival.

At home with your pets, you can do a few experiments to determine your animal's behaviour based on vision:

Watch what your pet does when you give them food. For example, put down two bowls, one from a can of 'older' food (opened a few days ago) and one newly opened. The food should be exactly the same, look the same. Your pet will smell the food and go to the newer food.

Now add more of the old food to the bowl and a smaller portion of newer food in the other, and what happens? Did your pet stay with the smaller portion of the newer food? The choice is often simple. Your pet wants the better food, so the portion size they see is irrelevant.

Module 6: Basic Emotional and Motivational Processes and Social Emotions.

6.1 Introduction

Emotions exist in animals -

As humans, we define emotions as the feelings experienced by animals. They are subjective and based on conscious experiences which are characterised by biological reactions, psycho-physiological expressions and mental states.

Animals experience a wide range of emotions including joy, grief, jealousy in addition to basic emotions like anger, fear and excitement. > jealousy is common in regard to mating and nurturing their young. 

Animals display classic responses to strong emotions. These physiological reactions could include a certain set of facial muscles, posture, quicker release of blood, faster heart palpitations and hormonal surges. 

6.2 History of Emotional Studies 

Charles Darwin was anecdotal in his observations of the animal world - he was also the first person to link behaviour to emotion. 

Today scientists, behaviourists and biologists assess animal emotion using hypotheses and the scientific method.

Early studies indicate there is a relationship between human and non-human animals with regards to non-humans feeling emotions - hypothesised that human emotions evolved from similar mechanisms that researchers still observe in animals. Many tests have been created including cognitive bias test (examines animals for pessimism and optimism) and learned helplessness model, to show animals are capable of complex emotions. > tests have been used on rats, cats, dogs, sheep, rhesus macaques, pigs, chicks, honeybees and starlings. Cognitive bias tests examine animals for pessimism and optimism. 

Other behaviourists work with stimulus-response method, where they believe that studying instincts, natural stimuli and the natural response to the environment and objects/events in the environment, are enough to explain animal behaviour. Humans tend to perceive anthropomorphic traits in animals, when it could simply be a stimulus-response behaviour. 

6.3 Oatley and Jenkins 

Two behaviourists who use a functional approach for studying animals - the approach looks at the role human emotions have and examines that same role in non-humans. They believe that there are three stages to emotions:

Appraisal

Where there is a "conscious or unconscious evaluation" of a situation or event that is "relevant to a particular goal". It is an emotion may be positive when the goal is attained or advanced; however, if the goal is impeded it is a negative emotion.

Action readiness 

Where there is emotional priority given to one or several actions. This emotion is usually given urgency above others or at least competes with other emotions.

Physiological changes

Usually facial expressions which are followed by a behavioural action.

While the theory behind functional approach can work for certain species it does not work across all areas of the animal kingdom.

 6.4 Cognitive bias test

This is the most common tests to depict animal emotions. The test is set up in different ways for different species in an attempt to get quantifiable data. A researcher is looking for a positive or negative response which would translate into what humans call optimism or pessimism. 

An animal is trained where a certain sound is followed by a positive reward. Another sound level is then followed by a negative reward. After training using these two sounds and obtaining the conditioned response, the behaviourist then introduces a third response. The animal is supposed to choose whether that sound is positive or negative. If the animal decides it is positive, then the animal is said to be optimistic.

6.5 Basic Emotional Processes 

testing for emotions in animals is often about anthropomorphic traits - some behaviourists have observed species in the wild to assess emotional reactions. 

Observation without interference ensures there is no learned trait from a human that could influence behaviour, the inference of that behaviour as an emotional response is typically based on the human's emtoional response > objectivity is required to observe without bias. 

An example of emotional response 

A dog that has been abused shows fear of their abuser by being submissive. The dog may cower by trying to be small, run to hide, or crawl on its belly when called. A cat can show fear by quivering, meowing or growing larger. A puffed tail, hair standing up on their back, cowering and running are all responses to an object or sound that is causing them fear. This is a basic emotional response seen when the animal experiences a stimulus that causes them fear.

Sadness, depression, worry and happiness can also be observed in a simular fashion. An event, noise or situation occurs, which is the stimulus. this stimulus demands a response, which is displayed by body language or verbal responses 

 How would you interpret a cat constantly meowing? You would need to use a process of elimination. For example, is the cat bowl full? Is their water container empty, filled with fresh water, or if you use a water fountain, is it on? What is the temperature of your home? Is their cat litter box clean? How much attention have you paid to your cat recently? Have you varied your routine?

By answering questions you can usually eliminate reasons for a cat that is constantly meowing to get your attention, and determine what emotion they are feeling. If your cat perhaps suffers from hairballs or an upset tummy and they are trying to get your attention, your cat may want to be cuddled because they do not feel well.

Another example is a dog that immediately runs to the door the minute they hear your car. They bark, jump up and down, and enthusiastically welcome you. This is a happy emotion tied to you being home or to the relief their bladder will receive by being able to go outside. Several studies suggest it is often both relief and happiness, based on how long you may have been absent and the last time they were outside for their natural bodily functions.

Other studies have shown depression in animals.

It may seem unbelievable that a pet can become depressed. However, the best example of this basic emotional process is seen after a pet's owner dies. Some perfectly healthy pets have died within a few days of their owner's passing. Other pets will stay by their owner's favourite spot or wait anxiously for their owner to return home. The pet may also stop exhibiting happiness at the door when their main companion does not return home.

6.6 Motivational Processes in Animals 

Motivation is considered a theoretical construct that explains behaviour in animals > represents the reasons behind actions, needs and desires - may be considered a stimulus-response; where there is a cause and effect based on an action, need or desire. 

Hunger is a motivational process that requires animals to seek and consume food - from this motivational process certain behaviours are seen that can be misinterpreted as emotional processes. 

Natural versus rational is the theory that certain "cognition is based on natural forces" like needs, desires and drives. It also states that there is a type of rationality like meaningfulness, instrumentality or self-identity that can be motivating.

Content versus process is about the "what" and the "how" that takes place. The "what" is the content and the "how" is the process. So what is motivating the animal and how is the motivation being expressed?

 When it comes to rational motivation the only species that shows this behavioural thought is humans, at least that we are aware of. The idea behind rational motivations is that we can rationalise certain thoughts and behaviours based on the needs, desires and actions taken.

For other species, intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are usually observed. Intrinsic motivation is "self-desire" where an animal will seek out new challenges or things to fulfil a goal. Usually there is an interest or enjoyment in the event or action taken, rather than a pressure from an outside source.

Returning to our example of the cat that likes going on walks, we can see that the cat does not have an external or internal need to go outside for a walk. A domesticated cat is trained to receive all its food and toileting needs from its owner. However, there is something in a cat that enjoys being outside; whether it be for the fresh air, the entertainment found or the adventure of being outdoors. If the cat did not like going outside or being on the harness and lead, it would refuse. However, the fact that it waits by the door, meows and even purrs in anticipation of going out, suggests there is a motivation based on emotion rather than a need.

Extrinsic motivations are activities based on outside motivational factors. In pets these extrinsic motivations are based on rewards. A dog may show a certain behaviour or response because it knows it will receive a treat or other reward. In the same vein, there can be a threat of harm or punishment when an incorrect behaviour is seen, which motivates this dog not to display such behaviour again.

One could argue that extrinsic motivation and the behaviour seen, as well as the emotional response, is tied to social emotions. Socially, the pet wants to be accepted and therefore shows emotions, actions or behaviours, in an attempt to obtain this acceptance in the social hierarchy.

6.7 Common Emotional Processes 

Within basic emotions, motivations and social acceptance there are certain emotional processes that tend to be common among animal species 

They include:

• Self-control, usually relating to emotional intelligence and survival. In this instance there is a motivation to remain alive, so control of one's actions will depend on that survival.

• Drives or desires are based on needs or deficiencies that elicit a certain behavioural response to meet a goal or gain an incentive. Sexual drive is a basic motivation for the procreation of animals, but behaviourists would also argue that there are species like humans that enjoy the act.
• Incentive theory or emotional processes based on incentives are about associating certain behaviours with rewards. For example, a hungry animal like an anteater will dig until it finds its food because there is a positive result.

Through the observation of animals it is possible to see various emotional processes based on instincts, desire and satisfaction. 

MODULE 14: Learning about dog actions

-Chasing tails: boredom, attention, genetics, compulsion (abuse, confinement, trauma, previous injury,sep. anxiety,etc.), medical, hygiene, fun.

-Rolling in nasty things: masking their scent (sometimes warnings, hunting, instinctual), coat improvement (evidence to suggest animal remains/fish used to improve fur water resistance), covering up scents, advertising (sniffing scents).

-Human to dog communication: Dogs can pick up nuances in voice.Mixed signals. Watch tone, volume, energy level of voice and psoture. Use the same words for the same actions, assertive and calm tone, short clipped words, use body language to assert control.

Don't lean over (intimidating), don't crouch, don't make hard eye contact (afraid), don't pat on head (alarming), offer hand with palm down so can sniff/scratch side of neck/pat front chest instead.

-Tail between their legs: submissiveness, nervousness. Feel uncomfortable.

-Eating grass: taste, boredom, stomach distress (extend neck, swallowing motions and vomit after). Natural scavengers that know what they need.

-Rolling over: submission, playtime (combat tactic).

-Moments of madness: playing, having fun, request to play with them, get attention.

-Circling: before settling in bed or forming a bed, during play, tail catching, but can be due to medical issues (anxiety, liver problems, cushings disease, canine cognitive function, brain tumour).

MODULE 7: CONDITIONING

INTRODUCTION- WHAT IS CONDITIONING?

Conditioning is a process by which an animal's response to an event or object are changed as a result of learning.

Conditioning entails associative learning. An animal discovers that certain events will reliable occur together. An animal eating new food and liking the taste will associate the food with pleasent sensory experiences.

PAVLOV'S RESEARCH WITH DOGS

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) was a physiologist who was primarily interested in biology of digestion.

Pavlov investigated the role of saliva in digestion, prior to discovering classical conditioning. Specifically the amount of saliva dogs produced when presented with food and how much they produced when eating. It was anticipated that they would salivate when they first saw and smelled food. This was supported by his data.

However, he also noticed that the dog's began salivating before the food was brought into the room. It was worked out that, when the dogs heard footsteps of Pavlov's assistant approaching the room, the dogs started salivating in anticipation. They associated the assistant's footsteps with the presentation of food, with them automatically salivating in response.

THE PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Pavlov redirected his attention away from the physiology of digestion to research learning instead. It was acknowledged that not all responses are learned; in this case, the dogs did not need to learn to salivate. This is a hard-wired reflex from birth.

Psychologists call this an unconditioned response. The food is an unconditioned stimulus. Pavlov began experimenting with using tones to condition dogs. First, a tone would elicit no particular response in a dog. It was a "neutral stimulus" that did not trigger any kind of conditioned response. Tones were immediately sound to prior to feeding the dogs. This was repeated several times. He discovered that the tone by itself would elicit salivation, and the tone therefore became a "conditioned stimulus", and the salivation a "conditioned response".

Conditioned responses are sometimes called "Pavlovian responses". The stimuli had to be presented to the animal within a short space of time. This was termed "the law of temporal contiguity" by Pavlov. If there is a significant time lag between a conditioned and unconditioned stimulus that is too large, an animal will not learn.

Pavlov also researched the question of whether the conditioning process could be reversed. If the tone was presented but not the tone then the dogs would eventually unlearn the association. However, an animal may suddenly revert back to a conditioned response in some unclear cases. This is known as "spontaneous recovery". The strength of the original association and genetics may play a role.

EDWARD L. THORNDIKE AND THE LAW OF EFFECT

Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949), an American psychologist working in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, was a pioneer in the field of learning.

"Law of Effect" was his first major contribution, which he described in 1905. This rule states that if an animal enjoys a positive outcome following a behavioural response (R) to a stimulus (S) they are more likely to repeat this behaviour in the future when presented with the same stimulus. At the same time, a response that elicits an undesirable effect is less likely to be repeated in the future. This observation, although simple, encouraged other researchers to investigate learning in both humans and animals.

WATSON'S WORK WITH LITTLE ALBERT

Inspired by Pavlov's work with animals, psychologist John B. Watson founded in 1913 his own school of psychological thought, which he referred to as "Behaviourism".

Watson believed that psychology should not focus on subjective human experience but focus on objective data gleaned from empirical observation. He reasoned that, by observing and experimenting with behaviour rather than thought, psychology could develop into a science based on replicable experiments. In 1920 Watson, together with his colleague Rosalie Rayner, had the chance to demonstrate how classical conditioning works in humans. 

They studied a young child, known as Albert B, in an attempt to condition his responses. First a range of stimuli, including a rabbit and white rat were presented to Albert. He wasn't perturbed by any of them. When the rat was presented, a steel bar was struck. Albert cried whenever presented with a white rat. Classical conditioning can lead to phobias. Albert feared stimuli resembling the white rat. This was dubbed "generalisation".

SKINNER'S ANIMAL RESEARCH

American psychologist B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) furthered behaviourism by carrying out research into the role of reward and punishment in shaping behaviour.

Skinner was a "radical behabiourist" and believed that all behaviour- even in humans- could be explained with with reference to theories of conditioning.

spatial reasoning is a type of reasoning skill that animals have which is a capacity to think about items in 3D as well as infer conclusions about those objects from only a small amount of information.

the concept is best understood by thinking of a child learning a shape of an object. this is spatial reasoning to learn that shapes go in certain holes. i.e roatating the item etc. 

animals have better spatial ability than humans.

they use this when finding their way home, breeding grounds, where food is. i.e birds.

how do animals navigate? 

visual spatial skills are only a part of an animals ability to use spatial reasoning. 

visual cues , ppaths , bushes homes etc help animals get back home. often combined with sent.

if you give a dog a piece of clothing to someone missing they can track them only if sent is fresh.

animals can navigate into the following:

beacons - nests/dens or homes

landmarks - similar manner to humans. visually recognise objects.

dead reckogning - path integration or finding position from a known location.

cognitive maps - are built inside the mind, baaed on spatial reasonin of an animals surroudning.

detour behaviour - a different path to the same home. 

long - distance navigation/home - getting home ok.

honing spatial abilities in pets - 

as humans we undertand it is possible for other people to increase their spatial abilities.  it takes a long process learning and training new skills that takes us beyond what learned duing infancy.

e.g - you put several studded toys in a pile. one has words on it. they will be trained to look for the word & toy.

spatial reasoning is joined to problem solving. this is learned by observation. i.e monkeys cracking shells on nuts. elephants that play with a box rather than a ball because its sturdy. 

timing and animals - 

animals have an internal clock that times their life patterns. i.e birds know when to migrate. 

this may be instinct or if you feed them exactly the same time each say they become spatial observed and know its food time that time each dsy.

humans are the only primates with a complex language. reasearchers are also considered our languagew to be the most expressive. 

animals make noise to show their needs. 

humans have lots of ways to communicated between a group of people.

nonverbal is signlanguage 

written 

oral 

animals dispaly verbal & non verval. some animals can display oral communication like birds, cats dogs. 

dogs can understand certain sign language from humans i.e stop signal etc. 

cats are less responsive to commands.

animals communication types - 

chemical communication - scent - they mark territories

tactile communication - touch to convey emotions or needs. i.e muzzling into you. 

smell 

movement 

touch 

posture

sound 

visual signals 

auditory communication - barking 

visual communixation - badges means the natural shape of an animal. displays are i.e parrors being different colours to attract other birds.

when a cat rubs against a human, theyre marking you with thier scent to warn "others".

animal speech - various animals know how to understand humans. chimps are capable of learning english.  they use language to speak to other animals. aggression, signal submission, repel enemeies, communicate about food.

vocal auditory - sound is emmitted from the mouth and heard by an auditory system i.e TV

rapid fading - this only lasts fro a short period of time.

broadcast transmittion and directional reception - this type of feature is where the recipient is able to tell which direction the signal is coming from, so they can hear humans or animals. 

interchangeablility - type of language or communicaiton between males and females. 

specialisation - is a signal produced for comunication, this is like when dogs pant they make a sound while panting 

sematics is a signal that has meaning 

descreeteness - this is the arbitarary relationship between the meaning and signal given. 

displacement - this is in relation to space 

traditional transmittion - i.e apes 

peoductivity where languge is open system, infinite amounth of different ways to create messages. 

duality of patterning - this is where words are units, they are used to make up a longer phrease with a meaning behind it.

Cats learn from each other and act accordingly. Undesirable behaviour can form due to how a kitten learns from you and other cats in the house.

Some cats are more stubborn than others, while others learn early on about the pleasures of bribing their owners for as much attention as possible.

Cats learn best through positive reinforcement in the form of treats, petting, praising and playtime. Reward them immediately to help associate with the proceding action.

Cats have an internal ability to tell when they are full. However, many cats like to have a never ending food bowl as this provied them more comfort then being fed at certain times of the day. 

An active cat can eat more but remain at a healthy weight, compared to an inactive cat that might eat a lot.

A combination of dry and wet food is best.

Wet food provides the nutrients and water a cat needs, while dry food just provides nutrients. Just giving wet food can be excessive and may lack fibre.

A cat that is fed on a meal basis will understand the exact time they should be fed and start begging an hour before.

Some older cats do not want to be bothered by other cats and need to defend their bowl.

Youger cats may try to steal anothers food, and most adults let it happen. Older cats instincts are to let their kittens eat and share. This happens even in the wild.

Cats that spent most of their life going from one family to the next tend to be more territorital with their food. They may growl, hiss or run off to eat.

Kittens need to learn early where they can eliminate, sleep, eat and what they are allowed to play with. You are responsible for what you leave within your cats reach.

You need to set your behaviour before you bring your kitten home. 

You should always ignore their bad behaviour rather then acknowledge with affection.

You should give your cat places to scratch. This is an instinctive behaviour, so without this they will scratch carpet or chairs.

Cats are smart with litter boxes. Your kitten has probably already learned what it is for by smelling the location. If an accident occurs you should take  your cat to the litter box as soon as you can.

Cats sleep 15-20 hours a day. They are active mainly at night and are light sleepers.

Make sure your cat knows where the food is, what they are allowed to eat, and feed in the same location.

Teach your cat where they can and cannot go. You can do this by using water, putting them on the floor when they jump up or ignore them.

Kittens can learn names and sounds you may make. Obedience training early is a good idea.

Certain cats are happy to go outside on a lead, while others will refuse. Starting early is the best way to get your kitten to slowy get use to a lead.

You should train your cat to ride in a car comfortably. At first, they may be terrified and car sick, however, they can learn to enjoy it.

Kitten when separated from their mum too early can develop the habit of suckling on other things like stuffed animals etc. This will slowly disappear as your cat ages, but they may still suckle. They normally do so when ready for a nap.

Older cats are not the same from when they were kittens. Some of this is due to physical changed like arthritis.

They can also develop teeth issues which can affect how much dry food your cat is willing to eat.

Older cats can have medical changes where they become intolerent to certain foods.

Cats will stay closer to you when they feel something is wrong e.g upset tummy.

For the first two years, kittens will play a lot. When they hit three, there is a dip in their energy level.

Kneading is one of the most common behaviours. They will rhythmically alternate between their right and left paw, pushing in and out against a soft object.

Researchers believer cats do this as a comforting motion. They feel content and happy.

Cats may use their nails to knead you which can be uncomfortable, but dont stop this as they are showing love.

Some cats will bury their head into you or a blanket. You may see this more when it is cold or if your cat is terrified.

Some cats are natural burrowers so they will burrow under blankets to curl up and take a nap. Some like to curl up at your neck or under the blankets.

Cats will also bury faeces. They do this to cover the smell and make sure it is disposed of.

dog communication is all about: 

smell

sound 

body language

taste 

touch

they have their own way of communicating. 

smell is most important sense your dog has. natural instint for a dog to leave scent behind. they smell to decide whether its a good scent or a threatening scent.

a dog can sniff to determin - sex, status and age and dogs scent has info such as socail sttus, confidence, moood and whether its a stranger or someone they know. 

to a dog everyone has a unique scent finger print. pets smell sweat, oil glands, shedding skins. 

they can smell fear, anxitey or sadness in humans. 

adrenaline dureing fight or flight responses can send body chemicals shoting to the surdfacwe and dogs can pick up on this with smell.

sound - barking & noises they hear. 

they communicate vocally, to alert, alarm, boredom, fear, suspisioun, demand, distress or pleasure. 

a distress bark is one of consistency, ofter high pitched, repetative and will increase in pitch.

ifyouve left them home alone, seperationg anxiety. 

if you have a dog in a crate or kennel an alert baqrk would be one or 2 barks. 

an alarm bark is intense and will be higher in intensity to try get you to go back to them. 

suspisious barking will be deep and slow

fearful is barking quickly & vigerously.

growling - warn of a percieved threat. this also helps to warn other animals around them. or tuggiung on a toy etc. 

baying - is a deep throat sound, usually if theres an inturder or if theyr beying at prey.

howling - is triggered by other high pitched sounds.

can be started when they hear sirens etc or under extream distress or howl because of isolation.

a whimper or yeld usually a sound of pain.whimpers can be exitement. whinning can occur when they want your attention or want to go outside etc. or just exited.

body language - importnt to their communication. body language will tell you if theyre fearful, sad, happy, nervous, angry. the eyes can show a dogs feeling. i.e widely opening means they can hear something etc. 

squinting could be them unsure of something. 

when a dog shows whites or eyes and dont look directly at you its usually an aggressive stance. i.e guarding something. their body will tense .

a dog that flicks its toungue in and out can be submission or if their frightned they will have their mouth pulled back slightly and mouth shut.

anxious dogs yawn a lot.

showing teeth is aggression or could mean a happy dog.

taste - dogs have 1700 taste buds on thier tongue, they are tuned to chemical groups which allows them to recognise certain taste.

touch - this can be showing love like licking etc. fear and protection they will lean up against you.